The “Book of Precious Stones” was written by Arabic scholar Mohammed Ben Mansur in the 13th Century AD. It was in no small way derived from a book written by another early Arabic mineralogist named Tëifaschi, which predated Mansur’s work by about 50 years.

Mansur’s book was translated into German and published in 1818 by Joseph Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, an Austrian with a life-long interest in Asian studies. Soon afterwards, von Hammer’s translation was translated into English, and published by Thomas Thomson, the noted mineralogist and chemist, in his magazine “Annals of Philosophy”. The translation is incomplete; Mansur tradition breaks each gemstone down into four sections… the first being its physical properties, the second, being localities where it is found, followed by the value of the gemstone and finally, its mystical properties. The translator capriciously discarded the last two sections in each of his translations, “as the value set on precious stones in Asia in the 13th century could, at the most, be a useless gratification of the curiosity of amateurs, and an enumeration of their secret, fabulous, and talismanic properties could be of no kind of use to real science.” While this may sound sensible, in fact the “magic properties” with which these gems were embued tell much about the concerns of ordinary people at that time. As an example, many of the “precious stones” described in an unattributed English lapidary that is possessed by Peterbrough Cathedral, in Cambridgeshire, UK, are specifically identified as having the special power to ease childbirth and to protect pregnant women who of necessity must travel (which, in context of early 15th Century England, would be matters of grave concern to the individuals involved). It also reminds us that purveyors of “mystical healy-feely stones” have been defrauding the public for quite a long time. 

Chapter II - “Jakut” encompasses gem quality corundum. Mansur notes that only the spinel (laal) of Badakhshan approaches jakut in luster. He adds that the redjakut “appears white in the fire, and again attains its former colour when taken out of it. When it is cut, it is called memsuh, and in its original state adschemi”… hinting that heat treatment of corundum was being practiced by the gem trade even at this early date. The Arabic scholars clearly show their functional undertsanding of the comparative density of minerals (demonstrated more fully in the very last section of the Book) by pointing out that jakut is heavier, per unit, than quartz.

Chapter III – Emerald probably encompasses a variety of green stones other than chromian beryl. Mansur’s comment that emerald occurs in “Negroland” (read “Nubia”) evokes thoughts of Wadi Sikait/Zabara in south-eastern Egypt.

Chapter IV – Chrysolite shows that much of the ancient world confounded peridot with emerald, to the point that Mansur is uncertain whether “chrysolite” exists.

Chapter V – Diamond Mansur repeats the ancient (and horribly erroneous) myth that when placed on an anvil and struck with a hammer, diamonds will not break. But he also notes the method of cleaving diamonds by period gem cutters. Diamond, according to Mansur, is to be found in India in a “deep ravine inhabited by serpents”.

Chapter VI – The Cat’s Eye Cat’s eye corundum – “found in the jakut mines, and formed of the same matter” – is one of the few “phenomenon stones” identified by early Arabic writers. While asterism isn’t noted, the cat’s eye effect of parallel rutile inclusions (“silk”) in corundum was clearly exploited by gem cutters of the era.

Chapter VII – Spinel Many early writers on gemstones state that spinel came from Badakhshan… so much so, that the name “balas ruby” (the term balas being derived from Badakhshan) eventually became part of the vernacular for red spinel. But Mansur notes that spinel “had its name from Bedachschari, not so much because it is found there, as because it is sold in that province,” much in the way that “turquoise” took its name from Turkey (its primary distribution center) rather than from the Iranian mines that produced it. Like diamond, Mansur makes claim of the “superior hardness of the spinel, which is not broken on the anvil.” One can but cringe at the thought of how many stones may have been lost to people naively attempting to “prove” its authenticity between hammer and anvil. Mansur notes the tradition during the Abbasides ( a dynastic caliphate which existed between 749 and 1258 AD) “a mountain at Chatlan was rent open by an earthquake” to expose spinels embedded in “white stone” (marble?).

Chapter VIII – Turquoise Mansur notes that turquoise came from the mines at Nishâpûr in modern-day Iran. Interestingly he notes a difference between “old mine” turquoise and “new mine” turquoise – a distinction between the ancient turquoise workings at Nishâpûr, which produces color-stable turquoise, and newer turquoise workings near Nishâpûr which produced a turquoise whose color faded soon after being excavated. 

Chapter IX – Bezoar The bezoar is a concretion formed in the gastrointestinal tracts of animals (especially ruminants). They were embued with great magical powers by both Arabic and European writers, most notably as a universal cure for poisons. Yet Mansur states that there were two types of bezoar – one derived from animals, the other “found in mines”. He adds that bezoar was carved into “chessmen, draughtsmen, handles for knives, and the like…” This is suggestive the bezoar found in mines was something akin to carbonate-type onyx (as opposed to chalcedony type onyx). 

Chapter X – Carnelian Mansur’s definition of “carnelian” is considerably broader than orangy-red colored chalcedony, and appears to cover other chalcedonies including onyx. 

Chapter XI – Jakut-Like Stones – this catch-all chapter covers a variety of gemstones that are similar to corundum in aspect, such as garnet-group minerals. Mansur notes that because of their inferior hardness, they do not “wear” as well as sapphire and ruby.

Chapter XII - Onyx Just as Mansur’s description of cornelian slops over to incorporate white and black chalcedony, so his definition of onyx encompasses red-colored chalcedony as well. 

Chapter XIII – The Magnet the ability of natural magnets to attract iron raised the humble (and ugly) magnetite to a position of importance among gemstones. But Mansur goes beyond magnets which merely attract iron to express the belief that there were other “magnetic stones” which attracted tin, silver, and gold.

Chapter XIV – Senbade von Hammer translated “Senbade” to mean feldspar. However, based on the description, it is more likely that “senbade” is emery.

Chapter XV – Malachite as a common mineral in copper ore deposits, malachite was well known to ancient man. Mansur’s comment that “some persons affirm that in Turkistan a red malachite, of the colour of the red jakut, is produced” sounds very much like a gemmy cuprite. Experimental efforts to “obtain the purest copper” by rubbing malachite with oil and natron proved decidedly ineffectual. 

Chapter XVI – Lapis Lazuli This gem material, so voraciously coveted in the ancient world, receives scant attention by Mansur. He accurately notes that the primary source of lapis is from Badakhshan.

Chapter XVIII - Jascheb Hammer translated “Jascheb” to mean “jasper”. Other authors more correctly suggests that jade is being described or, at least, a confusion of the two exists. Especially interesting is Mansur’s observation that faux jade was being produced in China which could be differentiated from the real gem material by its “smokey smell”.

Chapter XIX – Quartz Crystal Mansur notes two colors of quartz… the “clear and pure” and the “dark yellowish” (citrine?). Quartz could be melted into a glass, and artificially colored to imitate sapphire and emerald. Mansur makes special note of two quartz specimens containing inclusions – one bearing “a green twig” (green tourmaline?), and in the other a hyacinth (a yellow zircon-like inclusion). 

Chapter XX – Amethyst Mansur repeats the ancient myth that “wine drunk out of a goblet of amethyst does not intoxicate”. 

Miscellany Mansur notes a variety of minor minerals and gem materials. Talc, used to make artificial pearls, also bore the fanciful belief that if dissolved and rubbed onto person would render them fireproof. “Surme” (stibnite), used extensively throughout the ancient world as a black eye paint, is also discussed. A more curious gem material is the “Mouse Stone” which smells like mice - a property of questionable desirability. 

Interestingly he notes that the stibnite is roasted and condensed onto iron nails to give three different fractions of antimony compounds. 


 

 

“Book of Precious Stones”

 

Sect. 1. Of the Classes of Pearls 

Pearls are called merwarid (hence the Latin margarita), or lulu; this last name is usually given them when pierced. They are divided into various classes, according to their water and luster:

1. Schahwar, i.e. Royal pearls, the brightest and purest. 
2. Dürr, the common pearls, likewise called choschab, nedschmi, and ojun. 
3. Schekeri, i.e. sugar pearls, are of a red and yellowish colour. 
4. Benini, yellow-white. 
5. Serdi, the yellow-red. 
6. Kebudi, the blue-white. 
7. Rossassi, those clouded with a kind of lead colour. 
8. Surchab, those watered with red.
9. Siahab, those watered with black. 
10. Schemii, the wax-coloured green and yellow, and not transparent. 
11. Rochami, the marbled, dark, not transparent, and without lustre. 
12. Chusckkab, those of dull water, in contradistinction to those called choschab (mentioned above), i.e. of pure transparent water.

With respect to their form they are divided,

1. Into the mudahredsch, those quite round. 
2. Ghabni, those of the egg shaped. 
3. Aakid, half flat and half round. 
4. Scheldschami, turnip-shaped. 
5. Adsit lenticular.
6. Seituni, in the form of an olive. 
7. Schairi, shaped like a barley corn. 
8. Seili, formed like a tail or train.
9. Schemi, in the form of a taper. 
10. Fokai, in the form of a Can. 
11. Nimrui, hemispherical. 
12. Mussarres.

With respect to their size, they are divided into 15 classes, according to the number of the sieves through which they are passed, and of which one has always larger holes than another. The pearls of the first sieve, which has the smallest holes, are called:

1. The twelve hundred; because 1200 of them weigh a miskat. 
2. Those of the second sieve, the five hundred. 
3. The four hundred. 
4. The three hundred and fifties. 
5. The three hundreds, 
6. The hundred and eighties. 
7. The hundred and seventies. 
8. The hundred and sixties. 
9. The hundred and fifties. 
10. The hundred and twenties. 
11. The hundreds. 
12. The eighties. 
13. The seventies. 
14. Fifties. 
15. The forties, 40 of which weigh a miskal.

Sect. 2. Of the Pearl Fisheries

The best are at Serendib (Ceylon), and in the gulph of Persia at Bahrëin, Kisch, and Scharek, but the Arabian are less valued than the Indian; their colour and quality depend on the bottom of the sea where they are produced; they become dark in a black mud, and yellow in a shallow sea. The pearl oysters drawn out of the sea sometimes move very quickly, and sometimes not at all. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Jakut

It is of six different kinds:

1. The red. 
2. The yellow. 
3. The black. 
4. The white. 
5. The green, or peacock colour. 
6. The blue, or smoke-coloured.

The first, namely, the red, is again subdivided into six kinds:

1. Wirdi, the rose-coloured. 
2. Erghiwani, the purple-coloured. 
3. Behremani, the yellow-red. 
4. Lahmi, the flesh-coloured. 
5. Sumaki, the porphyry-coloured. 
6. Remmani, the pomegranate-coloured.

The second kind, the yellow, has three divisions:

1. Mischmischi, the apricot-coloured. 
2. Narendschi, the orange-coloured. 
3. Kahi, the straw-coloured.

The third and fifth kinds (the black and green), and the second and fourth kinds {the yellow and white), are one and the same. The sixth class (the blue) consists of four kinds:

1. Asrak, the light-blue. 
2. Ladschwerdi, the azure colour. 
3. Nili, the indigo-coloured, each of which has several subdivisions.

Some divide the jakut into four classes: into the red, yellow, dark, and white, as they count the peacock-coloured, and the blue among the dark. 

The jakut cuts all stones, except cornelians and diamonds, and can only be cut by the diamond.

Of other precious stories, only the Laal, of Bedachschan, has the lustre of the jakut; it is harder than all other stones, and cool in the mouth; the red jakut appears white in the fire, and again attains its former colour when taken out of it. When it is cut, it is called memsuh, and in its original state adschemi. 

There are six kinds of precious stones similar to the red jakut

1. The Laal. 
2. The Bidschade. 
3. The Benefsch. 
4. The Kerkend. 
5. The Kerkin. 
6. The Kuser.

The kerkend is of a dark-red colour, and the kerkin reddish-black, and transparent in the sun. The kuser has all the colours of the various kinds of the jakut. The difference between the jakut and the stones that resemble it is, that it scratches them, is heavier, and bears the fire. Thus the white Jakut weighs more than the crystal, which it often resembles. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Jakut

On the island of Saharan, which is 62 farsanges in diameter, and lies about 40 farsanges behind the island of Ceylon, is a high mountain called Sahun, in which jakutsof all colours are found. In the year of the Hegira, 669 (A. D. 1270), a mine of Jakut was discovered to the east of the village of Tara, in the third climate, and in the same latitude as the Canary Islands, and half a day's journey from Cairo, though some people assert that there is no jakut mine except the mountain of Sahun. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Emerald

It is divided according to its colour.

1. Into the subabi, grass-green.
2. Rihani, basilisk-green. 
3. Suluki, leaf-green. 
4. Sindschari, dirty-green. 
5. Kerassi, euphorbia-green. 
6. Assi, myrtle-green. 
7. Sabuni, soap-green.

The grass-green is of a beautiful light colour, like the green worms which are often seen in the grass; it is the lightest, as the soap-green is the darkest. The emerald, according to the degrees of its purity, is also divided into the bright polished (saikali) and the dark (sulmani). The first reflects every thing that is held before it like polished steel, while the latter does not bear the fire so well. The difference between the emerald and stones resembling it, as the jasper, the green laal and mina (green glass), consists in the polish. The oblong emerald is called hasaba (staff), and several pieces of emerald joined together by mina (green enamel), are called astar

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Emerald.

On the borders of Negroland is a pit of emeralds which still belongs to Egypt, where they are dug first out of talc, and then out of a red earth. The soap-green emerald is also found in Hedschas, and it is on that account called the Arabian. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Chrysolite

Abunassr Farabi, and many other learned philosophers, do not consider it to be of any particular species, but a kind of emerald: it is more beautiful and clear, and is divided into three classes; namely,

1. The dark-green. 
2. The middle-green. 
3. The pale-green.

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Chrysolite
It is dug out of the same mines as the emerald, and seems to be composed of the same materials, but less finished. Tëifaschi says, that in his time no chrysolite was dug; the rings which are seen of them come from Mauritania, and tradition considers them as fragments of the treasures of Alexander, who sought in the deserts of Africa for the fountain of life. After he had penetrated with his army into the land of darkness, in which flows the green fountain of life, it is said that the gravel under their feet (green, with the reflection of the fountain of life) was called the pebbles of repentance (hassbaen-nedamel). When they returned to the light, this saying was confirmed; for both those who had gathered none of the pebbles, and likewise those who had gathered home, repented, the first, because they had nothing, the second, because they had only chrysolite, and which was on that account called the pebbles of repentance. 

 

Sect. 1. There are seven kinds of it:

1. The white-transparent. 
2. The pharaonic. 
3. The olive-coloured, the white of which inclines to yellowish. 
4. The red. 
5. The green.
6. The black. 
7. The fire-coloured.

The first two kinds are the most common, the others more rare, and that which is quite polished, the most seldom found. It does not break on the anvil under the hammer, but rather penetrates the anvil. In order to break it, it is laid between lead, which is struck with the hammer, and then it breaks. Others enclose it in resin, or wax, instead of lead. The diamond has an affinity with gold, small particles of which are attracted by it; it is also much sought for by the ants, and covered with them, as if they would devour it. In India, where it is very highly esteemed, the exportation of it was formerly prohibited. 

Sect. 2. Of the Diamond Mines. 

In the eastern part of India is a deep ravine inhabited by serpents, where diamonds are produced. Some people suppose that it is found in the jakut mines.

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Cat's Eye.

It is a brilliant transparent stone, which appears to the spectator like the eye of a cat seen in a light place. If you turn the stone, this bright focus also turns; and if light falls on it, it plays in waves, which move the more, the stronger the light is which falls on it; if you break a cat's eye into pieces, you find the same focus in every one of them. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Cat's Eye.

It is affirmed that the cat's eye is found in the jakut mines, and formed of the same matter. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Spinel

It is of four different kinds:

1. Red.
2. Yellow
3. Violet. 
4. Green, like the emerald.

Sometimes the same stone is half green and half red. The red is of eight kinds: 
 

1. Gesehdimegi. 
2. Piasegi. 
3. Temeri, the date-like. 
4. Lahmi, the fleshy, 
5. Anabi, the dove-like, 
6. Bakami, having the colour of Pernambuco wood 
7. Edrisi, the stone enoch. 
8. Ekheb, the dark.

The gesehdimegi is remarkable for its pleasing colour and lustre. The piasegi has derived its name from the village of Piaseg. The flesh-like is dark-red. The gradations of the spinell are various, and jewellers know very well that there is sometimes no difference in the colour between the spinel, the garnet, and the coloured crystal. The difference consists in the superior hardness of the spinellus, which is not broken on the anvil, while the coloured crystal, when held to the sun, appears white. The laalhad its name from Bedachschari, not so much because it is found there, as because it is sold in that province. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Spinell.—At the time of the Caliphate of the Abbassides, a mountain at Chatlan was rent open by an earthquake, where there was found thelaal of Bedachschan bedded in a white stone. It is very hard to polish, and it was a long time before it could be smoothed, till it was at length, accomplished by means of the gold marcasite called ebrendsche. Smaller stones are found in the bed round a large one, like the seeds of a pomegranate. The miners call this bed of the spinellmaal. There were found in the mines first red, then yellow laal, and it belongs to the kinds of the jakut. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Turquoise (Firuse)
It comes from

1. Nischabur. 
2. Ghasna. 
3. Irak. 
4. Kerman. 
5. Chowaresm.

The first is the most valued, on account of its hardness, purity, and durable colour. This has seven kinds: 
 

1. Abu Ishaki 
2. Esheri . 
3. Sulëimani, a milky and sweet stone. 
4. Sermuni, with golden spots. 
5. Chaki, sky-blue. 
6. Abdol-medschidi, beautifully coloured, but soft. 
7. Andelibi, a little milky.

The turquoise is bright or dull, according to the weather; and is larger in rainy days than in fair. One kind of it becomes of a more beautiful colour in oil, but then loses it again. Jewellers call it mescha; that of two colours is called ebresch. The turquoise is also similar to a kind of green and blue enamel. According to the time in which it was dug up, it is divided into the old and new mines, of which the new change the colour.

Sect. 2. On the Mines of the Turquoise.

It is found in those places after which it is called; the most beautiful and richest mines are at Nischabur, where that called after Abu Ishak is the most beautiful, and the andelibi the faintest.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Bezoar.—It is of two kinds:

1. The animal. 
2. That found in mines.

The latter is divided into:

1. The yellow. 
2. The green. 
3. The dust-coloured. 
4. That spotted like a lizard. 
5. The whitish, spotted with gold spots.

They make of it chessmen, draughtsmen, handles for knives, and the like. If you throw the green bezoar into the fire, it turns black without being burned; the inhabitants of Kerman call it muchati schëitan. It is the contrary with the animal bezoar; it is likewise sometimes green, sometimes yellow, sometimes of a dust colour, may be easily powdered, and assumes. a white colour when it is powdered on the stone. It is divided into the cow bezoar (liakari), and into the sheep bezoar (schati). The former is a soft yellow stone; the latter, green and soft. It is very often counterfeited; the real may be distinguished from the false, as the former will not take a mark of fire, as its colour does not fall into a blueish, as it has no dots, and, when, rubbed, gives off a white colour. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Bezoar.

It is found on the borders of India and China, as also between Mossul and Dschesirei Ben Omer. It is said that the animal bezoar is produced in China in the eyes of the stags, in which the exhalations of serpents, which they have devoured, precipitated by the water, are said to be condensed into bezoar. The sheep bezoar is said to be produced in the stomachs of some sheep on the frontiers of Persia. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Cornelian

It has seven kinds:

1. The liver-red. 
2. The rose-red. 
3. The yellow.
4. The white. 
5. The black. 
6. The blueish. 
7. That of two colours.

Though a hard stone, it is much used for engraved seals. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Cornelian.—It is found in Sanaa and Aden, in Yemen, on the frontiers of India and Rum, and in the neighbourhood of Bassra.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Benefsch

It is of four different kinds:

1. Madeni, of a pure bright transparent red colour, quite similar to the red jakut; so that if it is strung with the jakut upon the same thread, the best judges can scarcely distinguish them. 
2. Rutbi, garlic. 
3. Benefschschi, blackish-red. 
4. Istasescht, of a light-yellow colour.

All kinds of the Benefsch have an affinity with the laal, but the benefsch incline more to blue than the laal.

Secondly, Bidschade, the garnet, is a red stone, of pure water, which often loses its lustre when worn in the dress, and which is distinguished from the jakut not only by its inferior weight, but also by a greater degree of warmth, the jakut, when taken into the mouth being cold, and making it moister, while the contrary takes place with the garnet. Thirdly, the madendsch, or madebendsch, is a very red stone; it is quite similar to the garnet, but its red inclines more to black, and it is lighter in weight. It has no lustre till it is cut deep from below.

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of these Stones.

The benefsch is found in the mines of the spinel; the garnets and madendsch (madebendsch, or madenidsch) are found on the frontiers of Bedachschan, and brought to Cachemire, about ten days’ journey off, which has given rise to the erroneous supposition that there were mines of them at Cachemire. The garnet has a division like thelaal, and is found in the mountain of Sahun, where there are also jakut mines. When they come from the mines, they are dark, and without water, and are not bright and transparent till they are cut.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Onyx

There are several kinds, as:

1. Bakrawi. 
2. Habeschi.
3. Anebi.

But they are classed according to their colour:

1. Into the white. 
2. Into the black. 
3. Into the red. 
4. Into the particoloured.

The bakrawi has three layers; the first, red, and not transparent; the second, white and transparent; the third, transparent, like crystal. The habeschi has likewise three layers, two dark, and a white one in the middle. The onyx is the hardest stone after the diamond or jakut, and is about the same weight as a cornelian. Some onyxes are striped, others not; in others, the stripes are interrupted; so that they form singular figures. 

Sect. 2. Of the Milieu of the Onyx.

Though the onyx is found in several places, the most esteemed are those found on the frontiers of China and Arabia.

 

 

Sect.I. Of the Properties of the Magnet

There are four kinds of the magnet:

1. The iron magnet, commonly called the iron robber, ahenruba. 
2. The gold magnet. 
3. The silver magnet. 
4. The tin magnet, which attracts gold, silver, and tin.

The magnet loses its power in oily substances, but increases it when put into blood, gold, or vinegar. The silver magnet is a white light stone, which swims on water, attracts silver, and is commonly called hadschrol-bokur, i.e. cow's-stone. The gold magnet is a pale yellow stone, which attracts gold, and the tin magnet is a heavy sinking stone, which attracts tin. 

Sect. 2. Of their Mines

They are found in Arabia, India, and other places.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Senbade

It is a hard stone, which polishes iron and steel. It is distinguished from stones which resemble it by its hardness, which is next to that of the diamond, which alone scratches it. It is either reddish or blueish. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Senbade

It is found in many places, as in India, Zanguebar, Siwas, Kerman, Nubia, and Ethiopia. The best comes from Nubia and Siwas.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Malachite.—The malachite is a green stone, which has the colour of verdigris, with red and black spots. Some persons affirm that in Turkistan a red malachite, of the colour of the red jakut, is produced. 

The dehne is of five kinds:

1. The leek-green. 
2. Basilisk-green. 
3. The black-green. 
4. The white-green. 
5. The emerald-green.

The pure malachite is called the sweet (schirin), and the dull the bitter (telch.) This is only valued very much in Syria and Europe; when it is smeared with oil, it receives additional lustre; when it is old and much worn it loses its beauty, and the white of its spots turns yellow. It appears like the turquoise bright in serene weather, and in cloudy, dull. If you rub it with natron and oil, you obtain the purest copper. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Malachite

It is found in fire places: in the mountains of Mauritania, in Kerman, in Haskerek, near a city which was built by Efrassiab, in Turkistan, and in Arabia, in the cavern of the Beni Salem.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Lapis Lazuli

Its four kinds are; namely,

1. Bedachschi. 
2. Gurdschi. 
3. Dermari. 
4. Kermani.

The first, i.e. that from Bedachschan, is divided into that with gold spots, and into that without. Powdered lapis lazuli thrown into the fire produces a many-coloured smoke. 

Sect.2. Of the Mines of the Lapis Lazuli

The most remarkable of them is the lapis lazuli mountain in Chatlan, near Bedadschan, but it is also found in Georgia, in Kerman, and in other places.

 

 

Sect 1. Of the Properties of the Coral.

There are four kinds of corals:

1. The reel. 
2. The white. 
3. The black. 
4. The dark-coloured.

They are soft and white as long as they are in the water, only become hard when out of the water, and assume different colours: the genuine can be distinguished from the counterfeit by the smell of the sea weed; in oil, they become beautiful and shining, but in vinegar soft and white. They are very much valued in China and India, because they are used for adorning the idols. Tëifaschi relates that he had seen a smelling bottle made of a coral, a span and a half long, and three fingers broad. 

Sec.2. Of the Places where they are found

They are generally fished up in the Mediterranean Sea. The best are the reddest, and the largest of a straight stem. They are polished with spar, and bored through with steel of Damascus. 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of The Properties of the Jascheb
It has five kinds:

1. The white and light. 
2. The whitish-yellow. 
3. The black- green. 
4. The transparent black. 
5. The dust colour.

In China, they make a false Jascheb, which is distinguished from the genuine by its smoky smell. If a vessel of genuine Jascheb breaks, it is repaired with artificial pieces, which are scarcely to be distinguished from the natural.

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Jascheb

In China there are two mines of it, of which the one called Ak Kitsch produces light Jascheb, and the other called Kut Kasch, dark. The large pieces belong to the Emperor, the smaller to the workmen. Jascheb is also found on the frontiers of Kaschgar, in Kerman, and Arabia 

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Crystal. 

It is more pleasing pure and clear than other precious stones, and is of two kinds:

The clear and pure. 
2. The dark-yellowish.

It can be melted like glass, and then coloured in imitation of the jakut, laal, or emerald. Tëifaschi relates, that in his time a merchant of Mauritania was in possession of a bath made of two pieces of crystal, which was so large that four persons could sit in it. In the Treasury of Gasna there were four crystal vessels, each of which contained two skins (borachio) of water. Abu Rihan mentions the assertion of the lapidaries that there was often found in crystal wood, and the like, and that he himself had seen two crystals, in one of which was enclosed a green twig, and in the other a hyacinth. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Crystal.

The crystal is found in seven places: In India, Turkistun, Europe, Arabia, China, Armenia, and the remotest frontiers of Maghrib (Mauritania). Some prefer the Arabian to the Indian, but the least valued is the Armenian, which is called rim-bellor.

 

 

Sect. 1. Of the Properties of the Amethyst

The amethyst has several colours, like the rainbow, and four kinds:

1. Deep rose-coloured and sky-blue. 
2. Pale rose-coloured and deep azure. 
3. Pale rose-coloured and sky-blue. 
4. Deep rose-coloured and pale sky-blue.

The Arabians set an extraordinary value upon the amethyst, and adorn their arms with it. 

Sect. 2. Of the Mines of the Amethyst

It is found in the environs of the village of Safwa, about three days' journey from Medina. Wine drunk out of a goblet of amethyst does not intoxicate.

 

Of various other Stones.

Sect. 1. Of the Weschich, or Schebak 
It is a black stone, easily broken, which reflects objects. It is of two kinds: the Indian and the Persian; the former is better than the latter. 

Sect. 2. Of the Charnahen
It is called the ass's stone; it is very hard, and can only be bored by the diamond; when broke it divides into branches; and when rubbed on a hard stone, colours it red: the most beautiful is the blackish-red; it is found in the district of Karak. 

Sect. 3. Of Talc (Talk)
It is of two kinds: that produced in the open air, and that found in mines. It is called sitarei semin, i.e. star of the earth, on account of its clearness and lustre. 
Artificial pearls are made of it, which are scarcely distinguishable from the natural. They may be known from each other by this, that the artificial swim on the water, but the genuine sink. The talc does not burn nor calcine in the fire. If you dissolve it and rub the limbs with it, it makes them fire proof. It is found in many places; the best in Cyprus. The talc can neither be pounded in mortars, nor broken to pieces with iron hammers. The way to dissolve it is to boil it with beans, to wrap it then in a piece of linen, and to beat it till it is dissolved, and oozes like milk through the linen. If dissolved talc is mixed with a little resin and saffron, and used as ink, it makes a gold ink, and without saffron, silver ink. 

Sect. 4. Of the Rainstone
A soft stone, of about the size of a large bird's egg, which is much celebrated among the Turks. It is of three kinds:

1. The dust coloured with red and white spots. 
2. The dark-red. 
3. The various coloured.

Some persons consider it as a production of a mine; some as an animal stone, which is said to be found in the stomachs of swine, or in the nests of some large bird. The Turkomans affirm that they can produce rain and snow with this stone. 

Sect. 5. Of the Eagle Stone
If you shake it you hear it rattle as if there were something in it; and on breaking it, you find nothing in it. 

Sect. 6. The Jarakan (the Jaundice Stone)
It is a stone with, red and yellow spots, which, when it is rubbed, leaves a red mark. It is so hard that it can only be bored through with the diamond; a little black stone which the swallows carry into their nest to cure their young of the jaundice. 

Sect. 8. The Oil Stone 
is set in flames when water is poured over it, but it is extinguished with oil. 

Sect. 7. The Vinegar Stone
It attracts vinegar, but cannot remain in it, as it always flies out when thrown into it. 

Sect. 9. The Jew's Stone 
A shining stone, which is produced in the sea, and has three kinds:

1. The round. 
2. That in the shape of a nut. 
3. The oval

is often marked with black stripes, is hurtful to the stomach, but very useful to the bladder. 

Sect. 10. The Milk Stone 
which, when rubbed, leaves a white mark; it is ash-coloured, and has a sweet taste. 

Sect. 11. The Mouse Stone 
which has the smell of mice.

Sect. 12. The Blood Stone, also Schadendsch, i. e. Lentil Stone
This last kind is used to polish the surface of the eye 

Sect. 13. The Moon Stone, 
a stone with spots, which become larger and smaller with the increase and wane of the moon. 

Sect. 14. The Colour Stone, 
which always reflects different colours. 

Sect. 15. The Sleep Stone
which produces sleep when hung over the bed. 

Sect. 16. The Stone Miskaf
which is said to be thrown up from the Mauritanian Sea. 

Sect. 17. The Marcasite
likewise called the Stone of Brightness, is divided into several kinds: the gold marcasite is dug up near Ispahan, and is called Ebrendsche; it is used to polish the spinellus; the silver marcasite comes from the frontiers of Bedachschan; the copper and iron marcasite is similar to copper and iron. 

Sect. 18. The Magnina
which is used by the glass manufacturer. It is divided into that with little and into that with large shining spots; but according to the colour into the blackish, yellowish, and reddish.

Sect. 19. Of the Sürme and Tutia
It is a bright, heavy, transparent, black stone, which is divided according to the country where the mines are situated, into those of Ispahan, Herat, Sabulistan, Georgia, and Kerman. The first is the best, the last the worst; if powdered Sürme is applied to the eyes, it increases their polish. The tutia (the genuine eye-paint), is divided into those of Kerman, Kand, India; the last is pure and white like salt; that of Kerman yellowish. It is made by laying the natural tutia stone upon coals, and catching the 
vapour in an alembick upon nails. The lightest tutia, and the best for the eyes, is that which forms on the points of the nails, the second sort on the middle, and the coarsest sort on the heads of the nails. The Indian is produced on the shore of the sea, and is much used in alchemy.

Sect. 20. Of the Proportions of some precious Stones to others 
Abu Rihan is said to have found by experiment that a miskal of blue jakut is equal in size to five dank and three tissue of red jakut, or to five dank and two and a halftissue of laal; and that four dank minus a tissue of coral are equal in size to four dank minus two tissue of onyx and crystal. The mode of discovering the size and weight is the following: a vessel is filled with water, and the stones thrown singly into the water; the quantity of water which is expelled from the vessel by means of each stone is equal to the room it occupies. 

God knows best.